PITFALL TRAP AND DRY DECANTATION

LAND ANIMALS

( PITFALL TRAP AND DRY DECANTATION )

1.1  Background

The population can be defined as a collective group of organisms of the same species that occupy space or a certain time with a certain pattern. A collection of some of the population referred to community. Identification process of a community in a habitat can do with pitfalltraps method and dry decantation. Pitfall traps method is a method of catching an animal with a trap system, especially for animals that live on the surface soil insects example, decantation and dry is a method for capturing animals infauna using Barless Set. The number and types of species in a community depends on the conditions of an area, biotic and abiotic factors. Then, a species that can adapt to its environment and interact with each other will be able to survive in that environment. Environmental factors that affect the community a species include: temperature, humidity, pH. Methods pitfall traps and dry decantation is used to get a reflection of soil animal communities and the diversity index of the data obtained.

Insects land is a fauna that has the type and amount of greatest successfully occupy a variety of habitats, as well as having a very wide spread area. The role of insects in nature is very important, such as a producer of food and shelter, as pollinators of plants, pests and parasites as well as no less important is as decomposers. The role of insects as decomposer in the initial stages which indirectly is an important tool for the creation of a balance of natural ecosystems. Insects move and eat leaf well as other parts of the plants that fall to the ground, thus accelerating the process of destruction of organic materials. Results broken down further described back by other soil microflora and fauna. Microorganisms have a big role in mineralization and re-circulation of mineral elements. Through the process of this mineralization will be formed of mineral salts (nutrients) that can be used by plants.

Humans derive many benefits from insects in many ways. Without them, human beings can not exist in life as it is now. Research on insects has helped experts knowledge to solve many problems in the offspring. Morphology of insects vary greatly in terms of size, shape, and color of the body or other body parts. Generally insects live in almost any environment, in water, soil, whereby the structure and behavior as well as their life cycle are modified adjustments as well as having a broad distribution area. Aspects of it was very interesting to learn. Given the very large role of insects in the ecosystem, especially insects land surface, it is done with the material lab animal ecology ground insect populations associated with the study of ecosystems.

1.2  Formulation of the problem

1.      How soil’s athropodathat contained in the Biology garden University of Malang?

2.      How diversity, evenness and species richness of soil’s athropoda in the Biology garden University of Malang?

3.      How animal species infauna found in the garden of Biology, State University of Malang

4.      How the value of diversity index, evenness and species richness of animals infauna in the garden of Biology, State University of Malang

5.      How the influence of abiotic factors on the value of H, E, R type of soil animals were found in the garden of Biology, State University of Malang

1.3  Research purpose

1.      Knowing soil’s athropodathat contained in the Biology garden University of Malang

2.      Knowing diversity, evenness and species richness of soil’s athropoda in the Biology garden University of Malang

3.      Knowing animal species infauna found in the garden of Biology, State University of Malang

4.      Knowing the value of diversity index, evenness and species richness of animals infauna in the garden of Biology, State University of Malang

5.      Knowing the influence of abiotic factors on the value of H, E, R type of soil animals were found in the garden of Biology, State University of Malang

1.4 Benefits

By doing the study of animal species in the garden soil biology Malang State University, then obtained the following benefits,

1.      Students gain the ability on how to measure soil quality parameters

2.      Students gain the ability on how to name an animal bio-indicator or soil found

1.5 Limitations

The location of practicum In biology garden State University of Malang. The scope of activities is pitfall trap and dry decantation practicum, to determine soil quality in terms of biotic and abiotic factors and identify soil animals in the region.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 PiTfall Trap

A pitfall trap consists of a container buried in the ground with its rim at surface level, and often with a roof above the trap to limit evaporation and dilution of killing liquids by rain water. There are a variety sizes and designs of pitfall traps. The diameter of the container varies between 2 cm and 2 m and contains different volumes, with container materials ranging from glass and plastic to mental (Greenslade, 1964). In ground arthropod sampling, liquids are usually added to kill the samples and preserve them. Killing liquids usually cover the bottom of the container, ensuring that the samples are easier to identify after prolonged sampling periods and limiting their chance to escape (Pekar 2002). Solutions commonly used are water saturated with salt, diluted formaldehyde, ethylene glycol, benzoic acid and alcohol. It should be added that the use of strong volatility chemicals like alcohol can be controversial for a standard ‘passive’ sampling method as it actively attracts certain species like molluscs, but we still consider pitfalls as passive traps because the solutions are mainly used to preserve samples rather than attracting them. In water-based solutions, a little detergent is often added to lower the surface tension and prevent insects from floating on the surface (Gullan and Cranston 2005). In addition to wet pitfall traps which contain liquids, dry pitfall traps are also sometimes used, which capture living samples (Mader et al. 1990; Winder et al. 2001). As cost-effective sampling methods, pitfall traps are widely used in collecting surface-dwelling arthropods (Greenslade 1964), sometimes even as the standard method for selected species assemblages (e.g. for carabids, see Rainio and Niemelä 2003).  The capture results are affected by the structure of the ground vegetation (for example, catches of ground beetles can be reduced with the increase of vegetation height, Greenslade 1964), trap size (with small traps more efficient in catching small beetles, while large trap in catching larger ones, Luff 1975), trap shape (with round traps catching more carabids than rectangular ones, Spence and Niemelä 1994), material of the trap (with glass being the most capture-effective material in catching beetles as compared to plastic and metal, Luff 1975), solution concentration (with the concentration of formaldehyde positively correlated with the capture rate of carabids, Pekar 2002), detergent (for example the number of spiders caught increases with the addition of detergent, Pekar 2002) and cover use (more carabids caught in traps without cover than in those with covers, Spence and Niemelä 1994). Therefore, when using pitfall traps to study a certain arthropod taxon, a good combination of trap designs should be considered. For example, round glass traps with 20% formaldehyde and without cover would be effective traps for catching carabids. Pitfall traps are obviously suitable to sample mobile, ground-dwelling arthropods, but not arboreal or primarily “airborne” ones (Spence and Niemelä 1994; Siemann et al. 1997; Rainio and Niemelä 2003). In addition, pitfall traps catch mammals (e.g. mice), amphibians (e.g. frogs) and slugs, which rot quickly with bad smell, affecting catches of target arthropods. Predation of sampled insects by birds or predatory carabid beetles and other predatory insects inside the containers can also influence to composition of pitfall trap samples (Mitchell 1963).

2.2 Factors That Influence Soil Quality

1.      ORGANIC MATTER

When plant residues are returned to the soil, various organic compounds undergo decomposition. Decomposition is a biological process that includes the physical breakdown and biochemical transformation of complex organic molecules of dead material into simpler organic and inorganic molecules (Juma, 1998).

The continual addition of decaying plant residues to the soil surface contributes to the biological activity and the carbon cycling process in the soil. Breakdown of soil organic matter and root growth and decay also contribute to these processes. Carbon cycling is the continuous transformation of organic and inorganic carbon compounds by plants and micro- and macro-organisms between the soil, plants and the atmosphere.

 Decomposition of organic matter is largely a biological process that occurs naturally. Its speed is determined by three major factors: soil organisms, the physical environment and the quality of the organic matter (Brussaard, 1994). In the decomposition process, different products are released: carbon dioxide (CO2), energy, water, plant nutrients and resynthesized organic carbon compounds. Successive decomposition of dead material and modified organic matter results in the formation of a more complex organic matter called humus (Juma, 1998). This process is called humification. Humus affects soil properties. As it slowly decomposes, it colours the soil darker; increases soil aggregation and aggregate stability; increases the CEC (the ability to attract and retain nutrients); and contributes N, P and other nutrients.

Soil organisms, including micro-organisms, use soil organic matter as food. As they break down the organic matter, any excess nutrients (N, P and S) are released into the soil in forms that plants can use. This release process is called mineralization. The waste products produced by micro-organisms are also soil organic matter. This waste material is less decomposable than the original plant and animal material, but it can be used by a large number of organisms. By breaking down carbon structures and rebuilding new ones or storing the C into their own biomass, soil biota plays the most important role in nutrient cycling processes and, thus, in the ability of a soil to provide the crop with sufficient nutrients to harvest a healthy product. The organic matter content, especially the more stable humus, increases the capacity to store water and store (sequester) C from the atmosphere

2.      Soil pH

Soil pH is a measure of the soil solution’s acidity and alkalinity. By definition, pH is the ‘negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]’, i.e.,pH = -log [H+]. Soils are referred to as being acidic, neutral, or alkaline (or basic), depending on their pH values on a scale from approximately 0 to 14 (Figure 1). A pH of 7 is neutral (pure water), less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is alkaline. Because pH is a logarithmic function, each unit on the pH scale is ten times less acidic (more alkaline) than the unit below it. For example, a solution with a pH of 6 has a 10 times greater concentration of H+ ions than a solution with a pH of 7, and a 100 times higher concentration than a pH 8 solution. Soil pH is influenced by both acid and base-forming ions in the soil. Common acid-forming cations (positively charged dissolved ions) are hydrogen (H+), aluminum (Al3+), and iron (Fe2+ or Fe3+), whereas common base-forming cations include calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+). Most agricultural soils in Montana and Wyoming have basic conditions with average pH values ranging from 7 to 8 (Jacobsen, unpub. data; Belden, unpub. data). This is primarily due to the presence of base cations associated with carbonates and bicarbonates found naturally in soils and irrigation waters. Due to relatively low precipitation amounts, there is little leaching of base cations, resulting in a relatively high degree of base saturation

3.       TEMPERATURE

The quality and quantity of the crop depends upon many factor including the soil. Soil temperatures significantly affect the budding and growth rates of plants. For example, with the increase in soil temperature, chemical reactions speed up and cause seeds to germinate. Soil temperature plays an important role in the decomposition of soil. It also regulates many processes, including the rate of plants development and their growth Soil temperature also plays an important role for setting life cycles of small creatures which live in the soil. For example, hibernating animals and insects come forth of the ground according to soil temperature.

Soil temperature is also regarded as sensitive climate indicator and stimulus. Scientists use soil temperature data in the research on variety of topics including climate change. (Sharratt et al., 1992). Soil temperature anomalies also directly affect the growth and yield of agricultural crops. For example cool spring season, soil temperature in shallow layers delays corn development and on the other hand warm, spring season, soil temperature contributes to an increase in corn yield (Bollero et al, 1996). Soil temperature although is integral in many ecosystem processes, is costly and its observation is difficult (Shannon E. Brown et al, 2000) Soil temperature also determines the state of the water in the soil whether it will be in a liquid, gaseous, or frozen state. In cold soils, the rate of decomposition of organic matter will be slow because the microorganisms function at a slower rate, as a result the color of soil will be dark. In tropical climates intense heating causes increased weathering and the production of iron oxides, which results into the reddish color of soil.

4.      SOIL MOISTURE

Soil moisture is an important hydrologic variable that controls various land surface processes. The term “soil moisture” generally refers to the temporary storage of precipitation in the top 1 to 2 m of soil horizon. Although only a small percentage of total precipitation is stored in the soil after accounting for evapotranspiration (ET), surface runoff, and deep percolation, soil moisture reserve is critical for sustaining agriculture, pasture, and forestlands. Given the fact that precipitation is a random event, soil moisture reserve is essential for regulating the water supply for crops between precipitation events. Soil moisture is an integrated measure of several state variables of climate and physical properties of land use and soil. Hence, it is a good measure for scheduling various agricultural operations, crop monitoring, yield forecasting, and drought monitoring. In spite of its importance to agriculture and drought monitoring, soil moisture information is not widely available on a regional scale. This is partly because soil moisture is highly variable both spatially and temporally and is therefore difficult to measure on a large scale. The spatial and temporal variability of soil moisture is due to heterogeneity in soil properties, land cover, topography, and non-uniform distribution of precipitation and ET. On a local scale, soil moisture is measured using various instruments, such as tensiometers, TDR (time domain reflectometry) probes, neutron probes, gypsum blocks, and capacitance sensors. The field measurements are often widely spaced, and the averages of these point measurements seldom yield soil moisture information on a watershed scale or regional scale due to the heterogeneity involved. In this regard, microwave remote sensing is emerging as a better alternative for getting a reliable estimate of soil moisture on a regional scale. With current microwave technology, it is possible to estimate soil moisture accurately only in the top 5 cm of the soil (Engman, 1991). However, the root systems of most agricultural crops extract soil moisture from 20 to 50 cm at the initial growth stages and extend deeper as the growth progresses. Further, the vegetative characteristics, soil texture, and surface roughness strongly influence the microwave signals and introduce uncertainty in the soil moisture estimates (Jackson et al., 1996). Field-scale data and remotely sensed soil moisture data are available for only a few locations and are lacking for large areas and for multiyear periods. However, long-term soil moisture information is essential for agricultural drought monitoring and crop yield prediction (Narasimhan, 2004). Keyantash and Dracup (2002) also noted the lack of a national soil moisture monitoring network in spite of its usefulness for agricultural drought monitoring.

5.      SOIL FERTILITY

Vaillant (1901) wrote: „the higher the humus content is, the more fertile is the soil and this fertility seems to be due, especially, to a large number of dinitrogen fixing organisms living here”. Hence, after few years only from the beginning of the soil microbiology research, the conviction appeared that soil fertility is due to humus content and to the number of dinitrogen fixing bacteries. Remy (1902), quoted by Waksman (1932), pointed out that some tests in differentiate between soils used the decomposition rate of nitrogen organic compounds in soil, making evident the conception that soil fertility can be estimated by biological criteria. Then, Winogradsky (after 1890), discovering variation of the number and activity of soil microflora, emitted the idea that the soil is a living organism.

Between 1910-1915, Christensen (quoted by Waksman, 1932) was the first researcher who suggested that the power of a soil for disintegrating cellulose can serve as index of soil fertility. Waksman (1932) described the best the correlation of the vital and chemical processes in soil. Although he devoted a chapter (Part D: 543-569) in his monumental work Principles of soil microbiolog, to the subject: „Microbiological processes of soil and soil fertility”. However, he did not succeed to distinguish between the concept of soil fertility and that of soil productivity. But sometimes, his conclusions about the nature of soil fertility and about the possibility to estimate it can be considered very correct and well correlated with the soil vital processes. So, appeared his clear expression: Soil fertility and the rate of oxidation were found to be influenced by the same factors and to same extent so that it was suggested that the latter (the oxidation – N.B.) could be used as a measure of the former (of the fertility – N.B.). Here, surely appears the biologic concept of the notion soil fertility”. In 1949, Pavlovschi and Groza stated: If so far the feature of a living organism was not recognized to the soil, nobody contests that the arable soil is an organized biological medium. Although Steiner (1924) and Pfeiffer (1938) elaborated the theory and practice of Biodynamic agriculture, in Götheanum Institute - Dornach (Switzerland) and substantiated the conception that the soil behave like a living organism, ecologically integrated, the first definition of the soil fertility (known to us) was given by Howard (1941), the founder, in England, of Organic farming:Soil fertility is the condition of a soil rich in humus, in which the growth processes are getting on fast and efficiently, without interruption there must be permanently an equilibrium between the growth processes and those of decomposition. The key of fertile soil and a thriving agriculture is the humus”. In fact, fertility state does not exist only in a soil rich in humus, in uninterrupted development of the growing processes and having permanently equilibrium between growing processes and those of decomposition. Those elements of the definition (underlined by us) reveal the wishes of the farmer, and are not objective features of soil fertility. Within a certain time interval, the nature of processes from soil, of increase or decomposition of organic matter (inclusive of humus) does not stand under the equilibrium sign. Agricultural activity itself strongly influences this equilibrium, with a special value in plant nutrition. We subscribe to the assertion that the humus (between certain limits) is the key of soil fertility and agriculture thriving. Maliszewska (1969) compared the biologic activities of various soils and suggested that respiration, proteolytic and cellulolytic activities are the most suitable parameters which correlate with soil fertility. Batistic and Mayaudon (1977) investigated the soil respiration and its enzymic activity under the influence of different treatments with N, P, K fertilizers and/or liquid dejections from cattle and concluded that the outstanding increase of respiration and enzymic activities of the soil, was only produced in organically fertilized treatments, that showed an increase of biological fertility of soil. Ştefanic’s definition (1994) approaches the most the fundamental biologic feature of soil fertility: „Fertility is the fundamental feature of the soil, that results from the vital activity of micropopulation, of plant roots, of accumulated enzymes and chemical processes, generators of biomass, humus, mineral salts and active biologic substances. The fertility level is related with the potential level of bioaccumulation and mineralization processes, these depending on the programme and conditions of the ecological subsystem evolution and on anthropic influences”. This definition has the quality to be analytical. Understanding the definition in detail, the analyses of soil samples can be used for quantifying the level of soil fertility. Also, Ştefanic (2005) gave a synthetic definition of soil fertility: „Soil fertility is the feature of the terrestrial loose crust to host complex processes (biotical, enzymical, chemical and physical) which store biomass, humus and minerals”, easier understood and used by farmers for realizing a sustainable, ecological agriculture. According to this definition, the agrotechnical measures applied to soil must improve and maintain the soil fertility and phytotechnical measures must ensure the plant growth, without damaging the vitality and cultural condition of a soil.

6.  DIVERSITY INDEX

Diversity index can be used to express the abundance of species in the community relations. Diversity of species consists of two components, namely:

1.       The number of species in a community that is often called species richness.

2.       The similarity of species. The similarity shows how the abundance of these species among many species.

Species richness and similarity in a single value represented by the diversity index. Diversity index is the result of a combination of species richness and similarity .There same diversity index values ​​obtained from the community with a wealth of low and high similarity if a same community obtained from the community with a wealth of high and low similarity. If only deliver value diversity index, it is not possible to say the relative importance of species richness and similarity.

Diversity can be analyzed using the Shannon-Wiener diversity index obtained by the parameters of species richness and abundance of the proportion of each type in a habitat. This index is one of the most simple and widely used to measure the diversity index. Shannon-Weiner index can be used to compare the environmental stability of an ecosystem. Shannon-Wiener diversity index used has the following formula:

Top of Form

H’ = - Σ (pi log pi)

information:
H’        = the diversity index

Pi         = comparison of the number of individuals of the species with the number of individuals in the overall sample plot (n/N)

This index is based on information theory and the arithmetic average of uncertainty in predicting which species were randomly selected from a collection of individual species and S N will be held. On average it rises with the number of species and the distribution of individuals among species, being the same / uneven. There are two things that are owned by Shanon index, namely:

1.       H'= 0 if and only if there is one species in a sample.

2.       H is the maximum only when all the species number of individuals represented by the same S, this is a completely uneven distribution abundance.

A community that has a value H '<1 is said to be less stable society, if H' value between 1-2 is said to be a stable society, and if the value of H '> 2 is said to be very stable. The community size H '<1.5 indicates a relatively low species diversity, H' = 1.5 to 3.5 show the diversity of species classified as moderate and H '> 3.5 indicates a high diversity.

The stability of species are also affected by the level of evenness, the higher the value H ', then the diversity of species in the community more stable (Odum, 1996) the wearer the kind that has a high degree of stability has a greater opportunity to sustain assess the stability of its kind. Or stability for the type can be used in the community evenness index value (e '). the higher the value of e ', the diversity of species in the community more stable and lower value of e', then the stability of species diversity in the community is getting low.

E   =H'/lnS

information:

e '= Index evenness

H '= Shannon Index

S = Number of species found

Ln = natural logarithm

       If the value of e 'higher shows types increasingly spread in the community. Magnitude E '<0.3 indicates evenness is low, E' = 0.3 - 0.6 evenness classified as moderate and E '> 0.6 then evennesskind is high. Species richness index (S), which is the total number of species in a community. S depends on the sample size (and the time required to achieve), is restricted as a comparative index. Therefore, a number of indices is proposed to calculate the species richness depends on the sample size. This is because the relationship between the S and the total number of individuals observed, n, which increases with increasing sample size.

       Margalef Index (1958) R = (S-1) / ln⁡N. Based Magurran (1988) the amount of R <3.5 indicates relatively low species richness, R = 3.5 - 5.0 shows the wealth of species classified as moderate and R is high if it is> 5.0.

7. SOIL ARTHROPODS

       Many bugs, known as arthropods, make their home in the soil. They get their name from their jointed (arthros) legs (podos). Arthropods are invertebrates, that is, they have no backbone, and rely instead on an external covering called an exoskeleton. The 200 species of mites in this microscope view were extracted from one square foot of the top two inches of forest litter and soil. Mites are poorly studied,  but enormously significant for nutrient release in the soil.

       Arthropods range in size from microscopic to several inches in length. They include insects, such as springtails, beetles, and ants; crustaceans such as sowbugs; arachnids such as spiders and mites; myriapods, such as centipedes and millipedes; and scorpions.Nearly every soil is home to many different arthropod species. Certain row-crop soils contain several dozen species of arthropods in a square mile. Several thousand different species may live in a square mile of forest soil.

       Arthropods can be grouped as shredders, predators, herbivores, and fungal-feeders, based on their functions in soil. Most soil-dwelling arthropods eat fungi, worms, or other arthropods. Root-feeders and dead-plant shredders are less abundant. As they feed, arthropods aerate and mix the soil, regulate the population size of other soil organisms, and shred organic material.

1.    Shredders

       Many large arthropods frequently seen on the soil surface are shredders. Shredders chew up dead plant matter as they eat bacteria and fungi on the surface of the plant matter. The most abundant shredders are millipedes and sowbugs, as well as termites, certain mites, and roaches. In agricultural soils, shredders can become pests by feeding on live roots if sufficient dead plant material is not present. Millipedes are also called Diplopods because they possess two pairs of legs on each body segment. They are generally harmless to people, but most millipedes protect themselves from predators by spraying an offensive odor from their skunk glands. This desert-dwelling giant millipede is about 8 inches

2.    Predators

       Predators and micropredators can be either generalists, feeding on many different prey types, or specialists, hunting only a single prey type. Predators include centipedes, spiders, ground-beetles, scorpions, skunk-spiders, pseudoscorpions, ants, and some mites. Many predators eat crop pests, and some, such as beetles and parasitic wasps, have been developed for use as commercial biocontrols.

3.    Herbivores

       Numerous root-feeding insects, such as cicadas, mole-crickets, and anthomyiid flies (root-maggots), live part of all of their life in the soil. Some herbivores, including rootworms and symphylans, can be crop pests where they occur in large numbers, feeding on roots or other plant parts.

4. Fungal Feeders

     Arthropods that graze on fungi (and to some extent bacteria) include most springtails, some mites, and silverfish. They scrape and consume bacteria and fungi off root surfaces. A large fraction of the nutrients available to plants is a result of microbial-grazing and nutrient release by fauna.

8. FUNCTION OF SOIL ARTHROPODS

Although the plant feeders can become pests, most arthropods perform beneficial functions in the soil-plant system.

1.      Shred organic material.Arthropods increase the surface area accessible to microbial attack by shredding dead plant residue and burrowing into coarse woody debris. Without shredders, a bacterium in leaf litter would be like a person in a pantry without a can-opener – eating would be a very slow process. The shredders act like can-openers and greatly increase the rate of decomposition. Arthropods ingest decaying plant material to eat the bacteria and fungi on the surface of the organic material.

2.      Stimulate microbial activity. As arthropods graze on bacteria and fungi, they stimulate the growth of mycorrhizae and other fungi, and the decomposition of organic matter. If grazer populations get too dense the opposite effect can occur – populations of bacteria and fungi will decline. Predatory arthropods are important to keep grazer populations under control and to prevent them from over-grazing microbes.

3.      Mix microbes with their food. From a bacterium’s point-of-view, just a fraction of a millimeter is infinitely far away. Bacteria have limited mobility in soil and a competitor is likely to be closer to a nutrient treasure. Arthropods help out by distributing nutrients through the soil, and by carrying bacteria on their exoskeleton and through their digestive system. By more thoroughly mixing microbes with their food, arthropods enhance organic matter decomposition.

4.      Mineralize plant nutrients. As they graze, arthropods mineralize some of the nutrients in bacteria and fungi, and excrete nutrients in plant-available forms.

5.      Enhance soil aggregation. In most forested and grassland soils, every particle in the upper several inches of soil has been through the gut of numerous soil fauna. Each time soil passes through another arthropod or earthworm, it is thoroughly mixed with organic matter and mucus and deposited as fecal pellets. Fecal pellets are a highly concentrated nutrient resource, and are a mixture of the organic and inorganic substances required for growth of bacteria and fungi. In many soils, aggregates between 1/10,000 and 1/10 of an inch (0.0025mm and 2.5mm) are actually fecal pellets.

6.      Burrow. Relatively few arthropod species burrow through the soil. Yet, within any soil community, burrowing arthropods and earthworms exert an enormous influence on the composition of the total fauna by shaping habitat. Burrowing changes the physical properties of soil, including porosity, water-infiltration rate, and bulk density.

7.      Stimulate the succession of species. A dizzying array of natural bio-organic chemicals permeates the soil. Complete digestion of these chemicals requires a series of many types of bacteria, fungi, and other organisms with different enzymes. At any time, only a small subset of species is metabolically active – only those capable of using the resources currently available. Soil arthropods consume the dominant organisms and permit other species to move in and take their place, thus facilitating the progressive breakdown of soil organic matter.

8.      Control pests. Some arthropods can be damaging to crop yields, but many others that are present in all soils eat or compete with various root- and foliage-feeders. Some (the specialists) feed on only a single type of prey species. Other arthropods (the generalists), such as many species of centipedes, spiders, ground-beetles, rove-beetles, and gamasid mites, feed on a broad range of prey. Where a healthy population of generalist predators is present, they will be available to deal with a variety of pest outbreaks. A population of predators can only be maintained between pest outbreaks if there is a constant source of non-pest prey to eat. That is, there must be a healthy and diverse food web.

A fundamental dilemma in pest control is that tillage and insecticide application have enormous effects on non- target species in the food web. Intense land use (especially monoculture, tillage, and pesticides) depletes soil diversity. As total soil diversity declines, predator populations drop sharply and the possibility for subsequent pest outbreaks increases.

2.3 Dry Decantation

   One method that can be used that behavioral methods, one of which is Barles tullgren. This method utilizes behavioral responses of animals, where animals will be leaving the ground after getting the right stimulus, such as heat, lighting, and drying. Because this method relies on the activity of the animals, they will not extract the eggs or break stage of the amount that represents. Furthermore, because of different animals react differently to the same stimuli, the efficiency of the various groups that are extracted from the core of a single ground will be different with the group. Extraction will not be 100 percent efficient for each group, consequently, population assessment based on this method will tend to be too low (Wallwork, 1970).

Extractor type of behavior is the most common dry Berlese funnel Tullgren, which has been modified in various ways to improve efficiency. Soil samples or bins placed in wire netting at the mouth of the funnel-sided ground heated from above by ordinary light bulb, bohlaminfrared, or heating coils or direct sunlight. Because the sample surface became hot and dry then the animal will go down and eventually out of the bottom of the sample, and a fall through a funnel into a small collection bottles are placed under the tool. So that the way the work is successful, this method requires a high temperature gradient arrangement and relative humidity, and maintained, between the soil and the atmosphere inside the funnel directly underneath. Thus, a small collection bottle should contain water or some preservative solutions, such as alcohol will increase the relative humidity of the funnel because of evaporation. Temperature gradients can also be enhanced with mengelilingkan the bottom of the funnel with cold water circulation system. It is also important to ensure the gradual heating of soil samples, in addition to most animals, especially little children, will die before merekadapat escape. Soil samples should be disturbed as little as possible when placed in the extractor. If the sample is in a state of congestion, the samples must be mounted upside down in the extractor., So that the animals can get out of the sample quickly and easily over the surface of the channel width(Wallwork, 1970)..

Light intensity and air temperature will determine the soil temperature. Temperature of the soil is one of the factors of soil physics that determine the presence and density of soil organisms, thus soil temperature will determine the rate of decomposition of soil organic material. Fluctuations in soil temperature is lower than the air temperature and soil temperature depends on the air temperature. Topsoil temperature fluctuated within one day and night and depending on the season. Fluctuations it also depends on weather conditions, topography and soil conditions (Suin, 1997). According Wallwork (1970), the magnitude of the wave changes in the temperature of the soil layer is much related to the amount of solar radiation that falls on the ground. The amount of radiation that terintersepsi before reaching the ground, depending on the existing vegetation on the surface.However, when the heating or the drying before making cloudy weather conditions that affect the process of the release of the land animals of the land to the bottle.

Arthropods are usually taken from the soil / litter samples with Berlese-Tullgren channel (Haarlov, 1947; Berbena Arias et al., Nd). In this channel, heated under the sun, and the collecting bottle filled with a solution of the murder (eg 70% ethanol) is placed below the sample. Light has a dual effect as it makes the organism photophobic to stay away from the light source and also heating the sample. As a result of warming that will make dried soil samples that will affect the gradient of temperature and humidity of the sample (Block, 1966; Berbena Arias et al., Nd). So with the high intensity light meal will increase the temperature inside the funnel, it can increase the speed of drying the sample (Coleman et al., 2004), but it can also burn organisms before their collection and thus lower estimate their abundance (Walter et al., 1987; Berbena Arias et al., nd).

Soil conditions and wet coagulates much more difficult than land animals to flee out of the heating conditions and even death before he could escape or out of the ground. The statement was supported by Wallwork (1970) which states that one of the characteristics that interfere in the funnel to dry, which occurs mainly when using wet soil, water condensation on the inner wall of the funnel can hold small animals and to prevent the animal falls into a collection bottle is small. (Wallwork, 1970).In addition based on an experiment conducted by Berbena Arias et al. (Nd) states that soil insects can be more common in dry soils than on wet ground.

  

CHAPTER III

METHOD

Observations carried out on 26 & 27February, 2017. Observations were made on land areas,there are plot 1, plot 2 and plot 3. For identification of samples was conducted in laboratory Ecology at F-MIPA UM Life Sciences building O5 109. The method used for the sampling of soil animals is purposive random sampling method,  a method of sampling is done deliberately. Intake of examples of soil animals is done by using pitfall traps and dry decantation. The samples were obtained in the field identified in the laboratory of Ecology F-MIPA UM in Biology building O5 109.

To determine the diversity index (H ') using the formula of Shannon and Weaner (Fachrul, 2007):

(H ') = Σ (-Pi. Ln Pi)

Information :

Pi = ni / N (ratio of the number of people the whole clan against clan)

H '= estimated variance population

In Wilh (1975), according to Shannon index value criteria:

H '<1 = polluted or heavily polluted water quality

H 1-3 = stability biota community is or polluted water is being

H '> 3 = stability biota community in prime condition (stable) or water quality

To determine the evenness index (E) can use the formula:

E =

Information :

S (Shannon Index Weiner) = Number of species

E '<0.3 = low

E '= 0.3 - 0.6 = moderate

E '> 0.6 = high.

To determine the wealth index (R) can use the formula:

R =

Information :

R <3.5 = low

R = 3.5 - 5.0 = moderate

R> 5.0 = high

Tools and materials used namely:

Tool     :

·         Soil analyzer

·         Soil thermometer

·         Bookmarks

·         Set Pitfall Trap and cover

·         Movies bottle

·         Shovel

·         Stereo microscope

·         Label

·         A small paintbrush

·         Tweezers

·         Needle

·         Petri dishes

·         Set Barless

·         Bottles of jam / group

·         Plastic tubs / buckets

·         Plakon’s bottle

·         Animal chamber

·         Straight pin

·         Aqua bottle of 300 ml

Material           :

·         Alcohol solution and a solution of glycerin with Comparison 3: 1

·         5% formalin solution

·         Alcohol 70%

·         Formalin 5%

·         Plastic

The procedure of pitfall trap are,

Description:

a = a glass of mineral water

b = alcohol + glycerin (3: 1)

c = a hole put a cup of mineral water

d = litter foliage

e = ground

And the procedure for dry decantation are,

 

\

                

                                                      CHAPTER IV                                      

DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Pitfall Trap

Table Observation

No.	Species	Picture	Picture Comparison	Characteristics	U1	U2	U3	∑
1.	Messorpergandei		I spot nature.org	-          Body length 3.5-8.4mm -          Head width 0.8-1.88mm -          Mandible length 0.5-1.05mm -          body mass of 0.12-3.25mg -          Live body mass ranging from 1.33-11.03mg -          has a head of equal length and width, with very large mandibles. -          has short white or yellow hair and a large thorax	-	1	-	1
2	Messorcapensis			-          Medium to large, HW 2.35 -> 3.40. -          Anterior clypeal margin varying -          head in full face view the sides more or less straight and approximately parallel, -          Occipital margin broadly and shallowly concave to indented medially. -          In HW range 2.35-3.44 the maximum diameter of the eye is 0.40-0.58, about 0.15-0.19 x HW, and the CI range is 103-119. -          Dorsal alitrunk usually rugose or rugulose everywhere but, as on the head, this sculpture may be reduced until it is very faint or even absent. -           All dorsal surfaces of head and body with numerous conspicuous standing hairs. -          Colour black to dark reddish brown, the head and alitrunk always the same colour, the gaster sometimes darker.	10	-	-	10
3	Dolichoderus sp.			-          Worker ants have a body length that is typically about 4 mm, and can be recognised by their thick, inflexible and strongly sculptured integument. -          There is a flange on the underside of the head near the base of the mandibles which is saw-like in some species. -          The longitudinal suture in the central plate of the metathorax is deeply impressed. -          The propodeum or first abdominal segment has the posterior face distinctly concave when viewed from the side. -          The gaster and alitrunk are separated by a single segment, the petiole. -          The orifice of the cloaca is a horizontal slit rather than a circular opening. It is surrounded by a few rather stiff erect bristles.	2	2	6	10
4.	Tetranychidae			-          medium-sized mites and are, on average, 400 millimetres in length (excluding mouthparts). -          are free-living (mostly predators, but a few species are parasitic on insects) -          genital pores are longitudinal -          They lay small, spherical, initially transparent eggs and many species spin silk webbing to help protect the colony from predators	-	1	-	1
5.	Hemiptera			-          Basal portion of the front wing is thickened and leathery -          Apical portion is membranous (this type of wing is called hemelytron, or hemelytran if single) -          Hind wings are completely membranous and shorter than the front wings -          Wings at rest are held over the abdomen with membranous tips overlapping -          piercing-sucking mouth parts -          Mouth part in form of segmented beak arising from front part of the head and extending back along the ventral side of the body at times as far as the base of the hind legs -          Antennae are fairly long and contain four to five segments -          Compound eyes are usually well developed -          Many have glands secreting unpleasant odor -          Well developed wings in general -          Some are wingless -          Eggs cases may be layed on plants or sometimes just dropped -          Simple metamorphosis with mostly five nymphal instars -          Most species are terrestrial but some are aquatic -          Predacious ones are beneficial to man -          Some may serve as disease vectors
6.	Armadilidiumvulgare			-          Like all isopods, -          oval-shaped and moderately flattened along its dorsal plane. -          Isopods have a cephalic shield (incompletely fused carapace) that is less durable than the fully fused carapace of other crustaceans -          They have three tagmata: the head, which bears their cephalon (fused maxillipeds), the pereon (thorax), and the pleon (abdomen).	-	-	1	1
7.	Pardosa milvina			Wolf spiders (Lycosidae family), is one of the spiders are most common worldwide. their color ranges from black to brown or brown with elongated dark and light stripes. Their eyes (they have eight) arranged in three rows of four, two and two. Anterior eye (which is in the first line) is the smallest, and are in a straight line. The middle row has the largest eyes, and the eyes in most posterior row can be almost as large as those in the middle. All eyes are dark. The legs are long and thin with very long spines. Scopulae the claw tufts on spiders 'legs' that helps them in grip during driving. These spiders do not have scopulae and therefore cannot climb smooth surfaces. cephalothorax highest in the head region, or carapace. Chelicerae much smaller than in other wolf spiders, measuring 4 to 9.5 mm. Dorsal stripes general's wolf spider is more bumpy than other species. abdomen has yellow spots. Sexual dimorphism in this species. Males have white fur on the patella foot. This spider is considered small. The length of the females ranged from 5.1 to 6.4 mm and a length range from 4.3 to 5.0 mm male.	1	-	-	1
8.	Pardosanigriceps			Pardosanigriceps tinted slightly darker brown or black-brown. Thorax has almost yellow complexion with a center stripe and a dark edge side, has two dark land line (band). Stomach had spots lighter and darker. under the thorax are brown with a yellow center that is different. Imago female measuring 7 mm, while males are up to 5 mm (length of the body). Males are smaller than females	1	-	1	1
9.	Allonemobiusfasciatus			Ortoptera has a generally cylindrical body with elongated hind legs to jump, they have a mouth mandibulate and compound eyes are large and may not have oselli, depending on the species. Antenna has a few joints and a variable length first and third segments of the thorax enlarged, while the second segment is much shorter. They have two pairs of wings, the overlap between the stomach at the break. have wings Femur hind legs obviously bigger than the femur forefoot Antenna long and smooth like the hair Torque 3 segments long ovipositor black Nimpha pale yellow with brown stripes	-	1	-	1
10.	Pipiza sp.			Body flies are usually short and slender, have adapted to the movement of air. TAGMA first of flies, head, consisting of ocelli, antennae, compound eyes, and mouth parts (labrum, labium, mandible and maxilla). TAGMA second, thoracic, hold the wings and have the flight muscles in the second segment, the shape enlarged. The first and third sections is smaller. In the third thoracic vertebra are halter, which helps balance the flies for fly. Flies have a head that can begergerak with eyes and most have large compound eyes on the left and right side of his head, with three small ocelli on it. Shape antennas vary, but often short to reduce the load when flying. No species of flies that have teeth or or other organ that allows them to eat solid food. Flies only eat liquid food or small granules, such as pollen, and parts of the mouth and digestive they show modifications that varies according to the type of food. Tabanidae females using mandibular and maxillary like use a knife to make an incision across his skin and suck the blood of the host. Stomach tabanidae including large diverticula, allowing the insect to deposit small amounts of fluids after a meal.	1	-	-	1

No.	Spesies	Jumlah	Pi	ln Pi	-Pi ln Pi
1.	Messor pergandei	1	0,0357	-3,3322	0,1189
2.	Messor capensis	10	0,3571	-1,0296	0,3677
3.	Dolichoderus sp.	10	0,3571	-1,0296	0,3677
4.	Tetranychidae	1	0,0357	-3,3322	0,1189
5.	Hemiptera	1	0,0357	-3,3322	0,1189
6.	Armadilidium vulgare	1	0,0357	-3,3322	0,1189
7.	Pardosa milvina	1	0,0357	-3,3322	0,1189
8.	Pardosa nigriceps	1	0,0357	-3,3322	0,1189
9.	Allonemobius fasciatus	1	0,0357	-3,3322	0,1189
10.	Pipiza sp.	1	0,0357	-3,3322	0,1189
	Total Species	28			1,6866

Information     :

Pi =

N = The number of organisms in all species

n = The number of organisms in the species X

·      Diversity Index

H’        = ∑(-Pi . ln Pi )

            = 1,6866 ( Medium Diversity)

H’ < 1.5 = Low

H’ = 1.5 – 3.5 =Medium

H’ > 3.5 = High

·      Evenness Index

E          =

            = 0,7325 (High Evennes )

Keterangan      :

S (Shannon Weiner Index) = Number of species

E’ < 0.3 =  Low

E’ = 0.3 – 0.6 = Medium

E’ > 0.6 = High

·           Richness Index

R         =

            = 2,7009( Medium Richness )

Keterangan      :

R< 3.5 =  Low

R = 3.5 – 5.0 = Medium

R> 5.0 = High

       From the data obtained is known that the location of the observations found that as many as 10 different species of Messor pergandei, Messor capensis, Dolichoderus sp., Tetranychidae Hemiptera, Armadilidium vulgare, Pardosa Milvina, Pardosa nigriceps, Allonemobius fasciatus, and Pipiza sp. Of the ten species are species that are found are Messor capensis and Dolichodherus sp. each of which as many as 10 animal, while other species are discovered each 1 animal. From the calculation of the index of diversity (H ') 1.6866 belonging to the medium diversity, evenness index (E) 0.7325 belonging to the high Evenness and richness index (R) 2.7009 belonging to the species richness of the medium

4.2 Dry Decantation

Table Observations

The results Dry decantation

No	name Species	Image	Characteristics of	Plot			Σ	H	E	R
				1	2	3
1	Oectophylla sp.		-       3 pairs of legs -       Pair of antenna -       body there are threeportion -       small-sized	10	-	-	10	0.450	0.649	0.402
2	Polichodenus sp.		-       3 pairs of legs -       Pair of antenna -       body there are 3 parts of -       larger sized species 1	1	-	-	1

Observations Fator Abiotic

No.	Name Tool		Results In Plot
			1	2	3
	Soil tester (Rapitest)	pH	7	7	7
		Moisture (%)	2	2	2
		Fertility	Too Little	Too Little	Too Little
		Light (x1000)	5.3	5	4
	thermometer ( 'C)		30	28	27

Data Analysis

No.	taxa	Total	Pi	Lnpi	pi Pi Ln
1.	Oectophylla sp.	0.83 -0.182 -0.151 2.
10	Polichodenus sp.	1	0.083	-2.484	-0.207
Number		12			-0.358

1.      Calculating diversity index Shannon - Wiener (H1)

H¹ = - (Pi lnPi)

has been calculated using the formula above, the obtained Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H) of H¹ = - (- 0.358) = 0.358. That is, low species diversity.

2.      Calculating the value of equity / evenness (E)

E = = = 0.183

Having calculated using the formula above, the evenness values obtained at 0.649. That is, evenness high population.

3.      Calculating the value of wealth / richness (R) = == 0.402

Having calculated using the formula above, the obtained value of $ 0.402. That is, the species richness was.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

5.1 Pitfall Trap

Macrofauna soil is a large group of animals occupant of land with size> 2mm, organisms included in the group consisting of soil macrofaunamilipida, isopods, insects, molluscs and earthworms (Sugiyarto, 2000; Wood, 1989). Macrofauna soil plays an important role as determinants well as indicators of soil quality. Among because of its role in the decomposition process, carbon flows, redistribution of nutrients, nutrient cycles, bioturbation and the formation of soil structure (Stork and Eggleton, 1992; Anderson, 1994; de Bruyn, 1997).

Thesoil fauna highly dependent on their habitats, due to the presence and density of the population of a species of soil fauna in an area is determined by the circumstances or environmental factors (biotic and abiotic) of the area. Soil fauna are part from soil ecosystem, therefore in studying ecology factors of soil fauna soil physics and chemistry factor is always measured (Suin, 2006). From the data obtained is known that the location of the observations found that as many as 10 different species of Messor pergandei, Messor capensis, Dolichoderus sp., Tetranychidae Hemiptera, Armadilidium vulgare, Pardosa Milvina, Pardosa nigriceps, Allonemobius fasciatus, and Pipiza sp. Of the ten species are species that are found are Messor capensis and Dolichodherus sp. each of which as many as 10 animal, while other species are discovered each 1 animal. From the calculation of the index of diversity (H ') 1.6866 belonging to the medium diversity, evenness index (E) 0.7325 belonging to the high Evenness and richness index (R) 2.7009 belonging to the species richness of the medium.

Abiotic Factors

The existence of soil macrofauna highly dependent on environmental conditions biotic and abiotiknya (Suin in Ruslan, 2009). Factors that affect it include soil pH, soil temperature, soil moisture, light intensity, soil fertility and vegetation. Differences in environmental conditions lead to differences in the type of soil macrofauna and also that dominate it.

a.       Temperature

Temperature is one of the factors of soil physics that determine the presence and density of soil organisms. Temperature effect on the ecosystem due to temperature is a necessary condition for living organisms, and there are other types of organisms that can live only in a certain temperature range (Hardjowigeno, 2007). Location of sampling has a temperature of 26 C. The temperature is still within the tolerance range of living things. This is in accordance with the statement of Kamal, (2011) that the soil macrofauna tend to like a somewhat lower temperature.

b.      Soils

Abundanceand distribution of Macro faunain land are affected by the condition of the soil. In the fertile soil macro fauna will get more. Due to the fertile soil of plants will grow well. This will cause the number and types of macro fauna ground herbivores will be high, so that the macro soil fauna carnivore will also increase, which will ultimately lead to a high abundance and distribution of macro fauna land in the neighborhood (Blue et al, 2011; Erb and Lu, 2013) , At this time practicum soil factors measured include soil pH, fertility, moisture, and light intensity received.

c. pH of soils

The pH of the soil in the plot revolves around the 7 1 so that they allow soil organisms to live. The presence and density of soil animals is highly dependent on soil pH. Animals ground there who choose to live in the soil pH is acidic and some are happy with alkaline pH and at neutral pH (Suin, 2003). Soil pH conditions depend on the content of chemical compounds in the soil. Soil fertilizers, insecticides, or other nutrients will cause the pH of the soil to be different. The more the content of chemical compounds contained in the soil will result in the reduction in species diversity in it (Herlinda, 2008).

d. Moisture

Moisture in plot 1 is relatively dry because moisture measurement indicates the number 2. effects on the organism if circumstances limit the extras, that is, if the state of extremely low or high. (Odum, 1993).

1.      Light intensity

Based on measurements at plot 1, it can be seen that the light intensity of the sun being, allowing insects can still do activities. The sunlight can affect the activity and local distribution of species.

2.      Fertility

Soil fertility also determine whether there is an existing mikrofauna activity. The more fertile the soil, the soil microfauna showed activity is very high. In measurements made in plot 1 is known that soil fertility is less dawn, so it can be indicated that the existing microfauna activity and presence there is still low.

3. Types of species found

Wallwork (1970) explains that the Arthropod phylum is a group of soil animals, which generally show the highest dominance among the organisms making up the community land animals. Sugiyarto (2000) also reported that a group of soil macrofauna in industrial forest habitat sengon mostly included in the Phylum Arthropoda. From the results of existing lab obtained three types of animals at plot 1 namely:

5.2 Dry Decantation

Low diversity index indicated that these ecosystems are being disrupted. Miglioriniet al, 2003 reported that the land which the low frequency disturbances have a diversity of Collembola higher than the land have disorders such as pesticides and liming. Diversity indicated in variations in the types contained in an ecosystem. If the diversity index is high, then the ecosystem tend to be balanced. However, if the diversity index is low, it indicates that the ecosystem in a state of distress or degraded.

Abiotic factors which significantly affect diversity index (H ') infauna on land without the spraying of pesticides such as temperature, humidity and pH. Abiotic factor data obtained from third plot shows the average temperature, humidity and pH consecutive 28'C, 2%, and 7. That is still in normal conditions. According Jumar (2000), underground insects have a certain temperature range for his life, the general temperature of the most effective to be able to grow and develop properly is the lowtemperature of 15'C, 25'C optimum and maximum 45'C obtained .The low infauna of the practicum is believed to be due beam irradiation location that gets direct result infauna species will move further into the ground for protection. Direct irradiation causes the water will more easily evaporate into the air. This is in accordance with the revelation Dharmawan, 2005 which states about the problems faced by animals on the mainland low humidity, especially when the high temperature is how to reduce evaporation or water loss in the body. At the time of the temperature measurement at 1 week after the lab work, the location data collection in overcast conditions so that the temperature obtained less accountable.

In addition to problems associated with abiotic factors that cause low infauna on the location of the data, also due to unfavorable factors observation of the practitioner. Conditions are less microscopes allow to observe a barrier to a situation in more detail about infauna that exist in the soil. Therefore, the results obtained showed a low diversity index.

Epifauna species richness moderate.Based on the index numbers on the analysis of data. It is due to the availability of abundant food and no disruption of the land and so infauna can live well and move on. Wealth index types generally can also be influenced by abiotic factors such as soil moisture and soil organic content (Suhardjono, 2012).

CHAPTER VI

CLOSING

6.1 Conclusion

1.      Infauna animal species found in the garden of Biology, State University of Malang include Oectophylla sp., Polichodenus sp Messor pergandei, Messor capensis, Dolichoderus sp., Tetranychidae Hemiptera, Armadilidium vulgare, Pardosa Milvina, Pardosa nigriceps, Allonemobius fasciatus, and Pipiza sp. The index value of diversity, evenness and species richness of animalsinfaunain the garden of Biology, State University of Malang respectively 0.358; 0.649; 0.402.

2. From the calculation of the index of diversity (H ') 1.6866 belonging to the medium diversity, evenness index (E) 0.7325 belonging to the high Evenness and richness index (R) 2.7009 belonging to the species richness of the medium.

3. The influence of abiotic factors on the value of H, E, R type of soil animals were found in the garden of Biology, State University of Malang is the existence infauna being easy or not to be found.

6.2 Recommendation

Preferably during practicum, following the instruction correctly and the installation of the tool properly.You also must be more precise in identification. I hope this report will be helpful.

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Attachment

·         KegiatanPraktikum